This Pillow Pick was written by Jeffrey Page and published on December 6, 2024.
Jeffrey Page is an Emmy Award-nominated director and choreographer, and a long-time collaborator, friend, and trustee of Jacob’s Pillow. He is embarking on a four-month research project to West Africa to uncover the embedded ‘technologies’ of rhythm, movement, and community inherent in the rich tapestry of African dance and music traditions. Each month, he’s sharing an update from his travels here on the Pillow blog.
Introduction
When we hear the word “ballet,” images of grandiose theaters, pointe shoes, and intricately choreographed dances set to classical music often come to mind. This perception is deeply rooted in Western cultural frameworks, where ballet is celebrated as a pinnacle of refined artistic expression. Originating during the Italian Renaissance and evolving through the courts of France and Russia, ballet in this context is often associated with sophistication and elite culture, reflecting centuries of evolving European aesthetics and values.
Contrast this with Guinea, a West African nation with a rich tapestry of cultural traditions, where the term “ballet” doesn’t just translate directly to “dance” but encompasses a whole different spectrum of performance art. In Guinea, ballet does not confine itself to the narrative of Western classical music or storytelling. Instead, it is a vibrant, rhythmic, and dynamic expression of the community’s life stories, histories, and aspirations. The Guinean interpretation of ballet is intrinsically linked to the melodious rhythm of traditional music, the communal engagement of storytelling, the enchanting call to gather of the chanteuse, and the vibrant celebration of cultural heritage.
This dichotomy between the Western and Guinean interpretations of ballet offers a fascinating lens through which to view art’s role in society. For many in Guinea, especially during the post-colonial era led by figures like Fodéba Keïta and President Sékou Touré, ballet became a medium not just for cultural expression but also for political commentary and social change. It was through their national ballet company, Les Ballets Africains, that Guinea proclaimed its cultural identity to the world, challenging colonial stereotypes and reasserting the value and complexity of African art.
As we delve into ballet’s global interpretations, we uncover the deep interconnections between art, identity, politics, and power. In Guinea, the term ‘ballet’ diverges from the Eurocentric conception of the form. Here, it distinguishes between traditional dance practices rooted in village life, customs, and forms, and modernized, neo-traditional styles often seen in contemporary, concert, or street dance. This local use of ‘ballet’ to signify modernization—rather than classical European forms—stands as a bold assertion of cultural evolution and self-definition. It highlights a broader movement across post-colonial nations to reclaim and celebrate indigeneity, redefining it in ways that challenge and transcend colonial legacies.
Here, I aim to explore these themes, examining how the transformation of ballet in Guinea from a mere dance form into a symbol of national pride and cultural resilience offers profound insights into the power of art to challenge, redefine, and inspire.
The Historical Context of Guinea
Guinea, located on the West African coast, is a nation rich in cultural diversity and historical complexity. Prior to its colonization by the French in the late 19th century, Guinea was composed of various ethnic groups, each with distinct languages, traditions, and social structures. These groups included the Fulani, Malinke, and Susu, among others, who lived predominantly in organized states and chiefdoms with deeply rooted systems of governance and cultural expression.
Colonial Impact on Guinea
French colonization, which began in earnest in 1891 when Guinea became part of French West Africa, had profound impacts on the region’s socio-cultural landscape. The French imposed their administrative systems, language, and economic policies, often at the expense of local traditions and authorities. One of the most significant impositions was the cultural assimilation policy, which aimed to transform local elites into extensions of French culture, eroding indigenous practices and languages.
Artistically, the colonial regime tended to devalue traditional African arts, labeling them primitive or unsophisticated compared to European art forms. This suppression had the dual effect of diminishing local cultural expressions and instigating a sense of cultural resistance among the colonized populations.
Rise of Cultural and Political Leaders
Fodéba Keïta emerged as a pivotal figure in the mid-20th century. Born in 1921 in Siguiri, Keïta was deeply immersed in the rich cultural heritage of his Mandingo roots. After relocating to Paris to study law, he soon found his passion in the arts, evolving into a celebrated poet, playwright, and dancer. In 1948, he founded Théâtre Africain, which later became known as Les Ballets Africains. This dance company toured Africa for six years, aiming to reclaim African dance and music from the derogatory narratives imposed by colonial rule. Keïta’s work celebrated the depth and richness of African traditions, and he used his platform to foster a sense of pride and identity among Africans both at home and in the diaspora. The company eventually became the national dance company of Guinea and was held in high esteem by Léopold Sédar Senghor, then president of Senegal. Keïta, alongside Kanté Facély and Les Ballets Africains, played a crucial role in showcasing previously unknown Mandé performance traditions to other continents, influencing similar cultural movements across West Africa, including the formation of the National Ballet of Senegal.
Sékou Touré became another pivotal figure, though his influence was more directly political. Born in 1922, Touré was a trade union leader who rose to prominence through his vehement opposition to French colonial policies. His political acumen and charisma led him to the leadership of the Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG), which advocated strongly for Guinea’s independence. Under his leadership, Guinea was the only French colony in Sub-Saharan Africa to vote ‘no’ in the 1958 referendum, choosing immediate independence over continued association within the French Community.
Independence and Cultural Renaissance
Guinea’s independence in 1958, with Touré as president, marked a significant turn in its cultural policies. Touré promoted a cultural renaissance, seeing it as integral to national identity and sovereignty. He supported Keïta’s efforts with Les Ballets Africains, which became an emblem of Guinea’s cultural diplomacy, touring the world to showcase the vibrancy and sophistication of African art forms that had been suppressed or undervalued under colonial rule.
Through their respective domains, both Keïta and Touré played monumental roles in reshaping Guinea’s cultural and political landscapes. Their legacies are complex, intertwined with both the empowerment of Guinean arts and the harsh realities of political struggles, reflecting the broader narrative of post-colonial Africa’s quest for identity and autonomy.
Cultural and Political Movements in West Africa
Regional Dynamics and Pan-African Sentiments
After World War II, the decolonization movement gained momentum across Africa. In West Africa, this period was marked by a surge in nationalist and pan-African sentiments, spearheaded by leaders and intellectuals who envisioned a future free from colonial rule. The drive for independence was often coupled with a strong emphasis on cultural renaissance as a means of reclaiming identity and asserting new national narratives.
During the war, thousands of West Africans were recruited to fight alongside French forces to liberate France from Nazi occupation. These soldiers, drawn from colonies such as Guinea, played a crucial role in major campaigns, and their sacrifices were stark reminders of the paradoxes of their own lack of freedom. Despite their significant contributions to France’s victory, upon returning home, these veterans found their homelands still under the yoke of colonial rule, which sharpened their resolve for independence and equal rights. The experience of fighting for freedom abroad only to return to subjugation at home fueled discontent and emboldened calls for decolonization, profoundly influencing the post-war push for self-determination.
This poignant historical context underscores the intensity and urgency of the post-war decolonization and cultural renaissance movements in West Africa. By highlighting the role of African soldiers in World War II, we can better understand the deep layers of irony and injustice that characterized the colonial relationship and the complex interplay of loyalty, sacrifice, and the struggle for autonomy that shaped the ensuing decades.
Guinea’s Unique Position
In 1958, Guinea made a historic decision to opt for full independence rather than join the French Community, a decision made under the leadership of Sékou Touré. This bold move positioned Guinea somewhat apart from its neighbors, many of which chose a more gradual approach to independence. Guinea’s stance might have isolated it politically and economically from other French colonies, but it also underscored its leadership in the fight against colonialism. This could have contributed to a sense of responsibility to lead by example, not just politically but culturally as well.
Connecting with Other African Nations
Despite the initial political isolation, Touré’s Guinea sought to strengthen ties with other African nations, advocating for a united Africa. This pan-African approach was mirrored in the cultural policies of Guinea under Touré, who saw the arts to bridge cultural divides and inspire solidarity among African states. Supporting initiatives like Les Ballets Africains was a way to communicate Guinea’s cultural narrative and share its heritage with the wider African diaspora and the world.
Cultural Movements as Political Statements
In the broader West African context, cultural movements were often closely intertwined with political aspirations. Countries like Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah were also promoting their arts as tools of national identity and international diplomacy. Nkrumah’s support for pan-African cultural festivals, which brought together artists from across the continent, might have influenced Touré’s own cultural policies. These movements not only celebrated African heritage but also served as potent counter-narratives to colonial depictions of Africa.
Implications for Guinea
For Touré, supporting the arts was not just about cultural pride. It was a strategic move to position Guinea as a cultural leader in Africa, capable of inspiring change and unity among newly independent or soon-to-be-independent countries. This cultural diplomacy helped to mitigate Guinea’s initial isolation and reinforced its standing in the international community as a staunch advocate for African unity and independence.
Influence of the Négritude Movement
The Négritude movement, emerging primarily among French-speaking African and Caribbean intellectuals in Paris, was a critical precursor and companion to the cultural and political movements in West Africa. Founded by Aimé Césaire, Léopold Sédar Senghor, and others, Négritude was both a celebration of black culture and a protest French colonial rule. The movement championed the value of black heritage and sought to elevate African art, traditions, and experiences on a global stage.
Parallel Aims with West African Movements
While Négritude was initially a diasporic movement, its themes resonated deeply with the political leaders in West Africa, including Sékou Touré. The movement’s emphasis on reclaiming African identity and dignity had clear echoes in Touré’s cultural policies, which sought to revive and promote traditional African arts like dance and music. Both movements shared a common goal of cultural revival as a means of political statement against colonial legacy.
Shared Impact on the Arts
Négritude not only influenced the literary world but also had a broader impact on the arts, inspiring a generation of African artists to explore and assert their cultural identities. This was parallel to the objectives of Les Ballets Africains, which aimed to showcase African dance and music as sophisticated art forms deserving of international acclaim. The dialogues around Négritude helped create a more receptive global environment for African cultural expressions, which benefited initiatives like Les Ballets Africains.
Négritude’s Role in Pan-Africanism
Négritude’s impact extended beyond cultural celebration to political activism, contributing to the pan-African movement which was a significant force in the post-colonial politics of West Africa. Leaders like Senghor, who was also a political leader in Senegal, bridged the world of cultural ideology and political action, using Négritude as a foundation for advocating pan-African solidarity and cooperation, a vision shared by Touré’s Guinea.
Sékou Touré’s Cultural and Political Influence
Promoting National Arts
As the first President of Guinea post-independence, Sékou Touré understood the integral role culture plays in shaping a nation’s identity. He utilized the arts as tools for nation-building and asserting Guinea’s sovereignty globally. Under his leadership, Guinea launched programs to revive and institutionalize its diverse cultural heritage through national arts schools, cultural festivals, and state-sponsored ensembles like the renowned Les Ballets Africains. These initiatives aimed not just at preservation but at cultivating a distinctly Guinean aesthetic to share with the world.
Influence of Political Ideologies
Touré’s anti-colonial and Pan-African ideologies influenced his cultural policies. The arts under Touré served as platforms for political messaging, emphasizing themes of liberation, unity, and progress, reflecting his socialist policies. While this bolstered national identity, it also meant the arts were sometimes co-opted for political purposes, limiting artistic freedom.
International Cultural Diplomacy
Touré used cultural diplomacy effectively, with Les Ballets Africains touring internationally to showcase Guinean and African traditions. These tours helped reshape international perceptions of Guinea, countering stereotypes and positioning it as a leader in Africa’s cultural renaissance.
Cultural Autonomy and Legacy
Touré’s policies significantly contributed to Guinea’s cultural autonomy, encouraging artists to explore indigenous themes. However, his authoritarian regime also imposed restrictions, shaping a complex legacy that continues to influence Guinean arts and national identity.
The Intersection of Art and Politics in Guinea
Art Under Political Directives
Touré envisioned art as a vehicle for national unity and identity, heavily sponsoring the arts, which came with significant oversight over artistic content, aligning it with the state’s socialist and nationalist agenda. This sponsorship fostered a vibrant cultural scene but also subjected it to state control and censorship, restricting artistic freedom.
The Tragic Case of Fodéba Keïta
A poignant example of the dangers artists faced under Touré’s regime is Fodéba Keïta. Initially a close collaborator of Touré and a celebrated artist, Keïta returned to Guinea and actively participated in politics. He was appointed Minister of Defense in 1961, responsible for uncovering plots against the government. Ironically, he was later imprisoned in the infamous Camp Boiro—a now defunct concentration camp he helped construct—for alleged complicity in a 1969 coup attempt. Keïta suffered torture and died under the “diète noire” (total food and fluid deprivation) in the same prison, highlighting the stark contradictions between his contributions to Guinea’s cultural landscape and the harsh realities of political life.
Arts as Tools of Propaganda and Expression
In Guinea, the arts played dual roles: they were tools for political propaganda and mediums for genuine cultural expression. While Touré’s policies facilitated cultural development and brought international recognition, they also posed challenges by limiting the scope of artistic freedom and turning art into a political tool.
Impact and Legacy
The interaction between art and politics under Touré had lasting effects on Guinea’s cultural landscape, fostering significant development but also raising ethical issues about the independence of artistic expression. The tragic fate of Fodéba Keïta serves as a somber reminder of the potential consequences when art and authoritarian politics collide, emphasizing the complex legacy of Touré’s cultural policies.
Challenging the Inferiority Assumption
Unpacking Western Assumptions
Western narratives often diminish African arts through a lens of colonial superiority, perceiving them as primitive or less refined compared to European traditions. This persistent underestimation not only ignores the intricate beauty and depth of African cultural expressions but also continues a legacy of colonialist attitudes that seeks to devalue African contributions to global artistry.
The Complexity and Sophistication of Guinean Ballet
Les Ballets Africains, a beacon of Guinean cultural expression, transcends traditional and Western boundaries by blending rich African dance heritage with elements from modernist and post-modernist ballet. This integration does not simply mimic Western ballet but reclaims and transforms ballet to articulate stories and emotions rooted in African realities. The ensemble’s performances are a profound dialogue between African traditions and contemporary artistic forms, offering a vibrant, rhythmically complex, and visually captivating experience.
These performances are not only technically rigorous but are imbued with a cultural resonance that speaks to the lived experiences and histories of African people. They serve as a powerful rebuttal to the misconceptions of simplicity and inferiority, illustrating the sophistication and profound communicative power of African dance forms. Through their embodiment of narrative and emotion, Les Ballets Africains showcases how deeply cultural knowledge and historical memory are woven into African dance, challenging audiences worldwide to rethink their perceptions of artistic excellence.
Legacy and Future Trajectories
Lasting Impacts of Keïta and Touré
Fodéba Keïta and Sékou Touré left profound impacts on Guinean art and culture. Keïta’s artistic innovations revolutionized African dance, while Touré’s cultural policies, though sometimes restrictive, helped elevate Guinean arts on the world stage.
Future Development of Guinean Ballet
The future of Guinean ballet lies in its ability to evolve and engage in global collaborations, enhancing its educational and diplomatic roles. This continued development will likely influence global perceptions of dance and cultural identity, promoting a more inclusive understanding of how we define arts.
Conclusion
This exploration of Guinean ballet highlights its crucial role in expressing national identity and advancing cultural diplomacy, challenging traditional Eurocentric notions of ballet to enrich global cultural dialogue. Visionaries like Fodéba Keïta and Sékou Touré have not only transformed perceptions of ballet but also demonstrated the transformative power of the arts in shaping societal values and influencing international perceptions.
As we delve into these narratives, enlightening parallels emerge between Guinea’s cultural and political movements and those in the United States during the Civil Rights Movement and the rise of Hip-Hop. Leaders like Touré and Keïta championed the arts as vehicles for political expression and social change, echoing the efforts of African American artists and activists who used their creative outputs as forms of resistance and a call for equality. The synchronization of African political movements with those in the Americas during the 1950s and 60s—marked by a shared struggle against oppression and a quest for dignity—provides a rich tapestry from which to draw lessons and inspiration. Similarly, Hip-Hop emerged as a powerful voice for Black people, channeling its energy and expressivity into a cultural movement that addresses both personal and collective struggles for justice and recognition.
Incorporating the embodied stories of everyday people underscores how deeply art is intertwined with identity, politics, and power—not only reflecting but also healing and transforming. Standing at the threshold of 2025, in a political climate that challenges our values of diversity and inclusivity, these historical insights compel us as artists and community members to reflect on our societal roles. They inspire us to use the arts as a mirror reflecting the trials and tribulations of our times and as a hammer to forge a more harmonious future. In the spirit of Keïta and Touré, paralleling the activism seen during the Civil Rights era and in the foundational moments of Hip-Hop, the arts continue to serve as a potent form of advocacy and a means to foster community resilience.
Call to Action
Engage deeply and meaningfully with diverse art forms to enrich personal and collective cultural experiences and fortify our resolve in challenging times. By advocating for and participating in a broader cultural conversation, we amplify marginalized voices and contribute to a dynamic, inclusive narrative of global and historical significance. Let us commit to using our creative expressions as tools for education, empowerment, and social change, ensuring that our cultures’ legacies are preserved and vibrantly alive in tomorrow’s dialogue.
Jeffrey Page's GRIOT Project
Page is embarking on a four-month research project to West Africa to study the rich tapestry of African dance and music traditions. Each month, he’s sharing an update from his travels here on the Pillow blog.
